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AT THE CENTRE OF THE CURRENCY WAR AGAINST THE LIRA IS ERDOGAN'S POLICY ON INTEREST RATES. HE IS COMMITTED TO CUTTING THEM BASED ON THE ISLAMIC INSPIRATION TO MOVE TOWARDS THE USURY FREE ECONOMY. THIS IS CERTAINLY CHALLENGING THE ENTIRE USURY BASED FINANCIAL AND BANKING SYSTEM. THIS IS CERTAINLY A POLICY THE ENTIRE UMMAH SHOULD SUPPORT.
THE POWERS THAT BE CAN NOT TOLERATE THIS AS IT UNDERMINES THE BASIS OF AN UNJUST EXPLOITATIVE GLOBAL USURY BASED FINANCIAL SYSTEM. THEY HAVE RESORTED TO CREATING PANIC AND DEVALUATION OF THE LIRA AS THE SYSTEM IS RIGGED AND MANIPULATED.
IN THIS DIRE SITUATION TURKEY NEEDS THE SUPPORT OF THE GLOBAL UMMAH MORALLY AND FINANCIALLY. BUT ULTIMATELY THOSE SEEKING TO IMPLEMENT THE WILL OF ALLAH NEED TO RELY AND SEEK ALLAH's ASSISTANCE AS ONLY HE CAN DELIVER SUCCESS IN THIS WORLD.
TURKISH LIRA REBOUNDS AFTER INTRODUCTION OF NEW ECONOMIC TOOL
https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish-...tool-52852
The new measure is meant to compensate lira-based savers and defend the value of lira holdings against fluctuations in the exchange rate.
Under a new measure, Turkiye will compensate lira depositors for foreign currency fluctuations while encouraging citizens to move towards Turkish lira-based assets, according to details of the newly released mechanism.The new FX-indexed Turkish lira deposits tool will be available for individuals who have a lira deposit account with a maturity of three, six, nine, or 12 months, according to a Treasury and Finance Ministry statement on Tuesday. Under the facility, if the yield remains below the exchange rate difference between the account opening and its maturity dates despite the earned interest, the Treasury will compensate the depositor.
For the calculation, the Turkiye's Central Bank will publish the US dollar buying rate daily at 0800 GMT. All lenders – both state and private – can join the system voluntarily, the ministry said, adding that the government is also working to implement the new system for participation banks with Islamic finance perspectives.The policy rate for the measure will be the minimum interest rate applied to term deposits. The Central Bank's policy rate is the minimum interest rate applied to term deposits.
Lira rebounds
Following a 100 basis points rate cut last week, the Central Bank's benchmark one-week repo rate – policy rate stands at 14 percent. With the latest cut, the monetary authority has lowered the key rate 500 basis points since September.
TURKEY FOILED SPECULATIVE ECONOMIC ATTACKS, ERDOGAN SAYS
https://www.dailysabah.com/business/econ...dogan-says
Turkey has foiled attacks by domestic and foreign players on its economy after the lira successfully rebounded from record lows against foreign currencies, President Recep Tayyip Erdo?an said Wednesday. "There are obstacles, risks and traps but Turkey’s determination will overcome these and we will emerge victorious from the economic battle," Erdo?an told fellow lawmakers at the ruling Justice and Development Party's (AK Party) parliamentary meeting in Ankara.
He also noted that Turkey is not doing anything against free-market rules, but is trying to ensure speculators leave the economy alone.The Turkish lira made an overnight come back on Monday as Erdo?an revealed a new financial mechanism to shore up the currency.The fresh measures come in the wake of rising prices and exchange rates as the government pursues its "new economic model," which emphasizes opposition to high interest.
Erdo?an said the new instrument would allow potential investors in foreign currencies to get the same results while sticking to the lira.On Tuesday morning, the lira-dollar exchange rate dropped to 11.23 as of 9:30 a.m. local time (6:30 a.m. GMT), gaining almost 40% against the dollar since Monday evening. The United States dollar and euro both tumbled more than 33% late Monday after Erdo?an unveiled the plan that he said would guarantee local currency deposits against market fluctuations.
TURKISH LIRA UP UPON ONE CALL FROM ERDOGAN BRINGING NEW ECONOMIC MODEL
TURKISH LIRA DOWN FURTHER AND ERDOGAN FURTHER CUTS THE RATES
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WHAT DOES THE MONTREUX ACCORD SAY ABOUT CLOSING BLACK SEA ACCESS TO RUSSIA ?
https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/what-d...ssia-55083
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THE END OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
A Bloody Legacy Episode 2
GLOBAL VISION 2000 INTERVIEW ON ANKARA's CAPITAL POST
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TODAY IS MAY 19 2022 CELEBRATING THE START OF THE TURKISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 103 YEARS AGO IN MAY 19 1919. IT IS AN INCENTIVE TO RE DISCOVER WHAT REALLY HAPPENED.
ATATURK: TURKLERIN BABASI BELGESELI
OTTOMAN DEFEAT - THE OCCUPATION OF CONSTANTINOPLE
LAST WORDS OF SULTAN ABDUL HAMID 1
THE STORY OF PAYTAHT ABDUL HAMID SERIES
ARMISTICE OF MUDROS
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros
Concluded on 30 October 1918 and taking effect at noon the next day, the Armistice of Mudros (Turkish: Mondros Mütarekesi) ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I. It was signed by the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Bey and British Admiral Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe, on board HMS Agamemnon in Moudros harbor on the Greek island of Lemnos.[1]
Among its conditions, the Ottomans surrendered their remaining garrisons outside Anatolia, granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, and to occupy any Ottoman territory "in case of disorder" threatening their security. The Ottoman army (including the Ottoman air force) was demobilized; and all ports, railways and other strategic points were made available for use by the Allies. In the Caucasus, the Ottomans had to retreat to within the pre-war borders between the Ottoman and the Russian Empires.
The armistice was followed by the occupation of Constantinople (Istanbul) and the subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920), which was signed in the aftermath of World War I, imposed harsh terms on the Ottoman Empire, but it was never ratified by the Ottoman Parliament in Istanbul. The Ottoman Parliament was officially disbanded by the Allies on 11 April 1920 due to the overwhelming opposition of the Turkish MPs to the provisions discussed in Sèvres. Afterward, the Turkish War of Independence was fought from 1919 to 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey, established in Ankara on 23 April 1920 by Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his followers (including former MPs of the closed Ottoman Parliament), became the new de facto government of Turkey. The Armistice of Mudros was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne, signed on 24 July 1923, following the Turkish victory in the War of Independence.
World War I took a chaotic turn in 1918 for the Ottoman Empire. With Yudenich's Russian Caucasus Army deserting after the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Ottomans regained ground in Armenia and even pushed into formerly Russian-controlled Caucasus with, at first, Vehip Pasha's Ottoman 3rd Army and, later beginning in June 1918, with Nuri Pasha's Army of Islam which excluded German officers and men. The Caucasus Campaign put the Ottomans at odds with their ally, Germany, which had been hoping to purchase Caucasus oil from the Bolshevik government in Moscow,[a] while the Ottomans wanted to establish their eastern borders.
The Ottoman armies advanced far into Caucasus, gathering supporters as far away as Tashkent, on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea. Additionally, with the Bolsheviks in power in Moscow, chaos spread in Persia, as the Russo-British favoring government of Ahmad Shah Qajar lost authority outside of the capital. In contrast, in Syria, the Ottomans were steadily pushed back by British forces, culminating in the fall of Damascus in October 1918. Hopes were initially high for the Ottomans that their losses in Syria might be compensated with successes in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha, one of the most influential members of the Ottoman government, maintained an optimistic stance, hid information that made the Ottoman position appear weak, and led most of the Ottoman elite to believe that the war was still winnable.[2]
Notes
- Under the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Trabzon peace conference convened but failed to define the borders between the Ottoman Empire and the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. This led to the recognition that a state of war exists between Tiflis and Constantinople in April 1918.
-
References
- Fromkin, David (2009). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East. Macmillan. pp. 360–373. ISBN 978-0-8050-8809-0.
Literature- Laura M. Adkisson Great Britain and the Kemalist Movement for Turkish Independence, 1919–1923, Michigan 1958.
- Paul C. Helmreich From Paris to Sèvres. The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920, Ohio 1974, S. 3–5, the text can be found on pages pp. 341f.
- Patrick Balfour Kinross Atatürk: A Biography of Mustafa Kemal, father of modern Turkey, New York 1965.
- Sir Frederick B. Maurice The Armistices of 1918, London 1943.
[*] The Bolsheviks had support only in Petrograd and Moscow in 1917 and 1918. After allowing both Trotsky and Lenin to return to Russia by train from Switzerland and lead the October Revolution, Germany considered the Bolshevik government a puppet state under its power. After the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, most Russians disliked the terms of the Bolshevik signed treaty and believed that the Bolsheviks were a puppet under German interests, too.
[*] Karsh, Efraim, Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, (Harvard University Press, 2001), 327.
OCCUPATION OF CONSTANTINOPLE
[*]
Louis Franchet d'Espèrey marching in Beyoglu, February 8, 1919
[*]
November 13, 1918 – October 4, 1923
Location
Constantinople (Istanbul)
Result
Temporary military occupation of Constantinople after World War I by the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Greece.
Territorial
changes
Britain officially dismantled the Ottoman Parliament in Constantinople on 11 April 1920 and forced the Ottoman government to sign the Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920), but after the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922) they agreed to recognize the authority of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara over the territory of Turkey with the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923).
Belligerents
United Kingdom
Land forces on 13 November 1918:[4]
[*] 2,616 British, 540 French, 470 Italian (Total: 3,626 soldiers)
Land forces by 5 November 1919:[5]
27,419 soldiers (27 artillery batteries, 160 machine guns)
19,069 soldiers (30 cannons, 91 machine guns)
3,992 soldiers
795 soldiers (160 machine guns)
Total: ~51,300 soldiers (411 machine guns, 57 artillery pieces)
Naval forces:
13 November 1918: 50[6]–61[7] warships
15 November 1918: 167 warships+auxiliary ships[8][9]
1: Commander of the XXV Corp and the Istanbul Guard (October 6, 1919 – March 16, 1920[10])
2: Commander of the Istanbul Command (December 10, 1922 – September 29, 1923[11])
[*]
The occupation of Constantinople (Turkish: ?stanbul'un ??gali; November 13, 1918 – October 4, 1923), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, by British, French, Italian, and Greek forces, took place in accordance with the Armistice of Mudros, which ended Ottoman participation in the First World War. The first French troops entered the city on November 12, 1918, followed by British troops the next day. The Italian troops landed in Galata on February 7, 1919.[3]
[*]
Allied troops occupied zones based on the sections of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and set up an Allied military administration early in December 1918. The occupation had two stages: the initial phase in accordance with the Armistice gave way in 1920 to a more formal arrangement under the Treaty of Sèvres. Ultimately, the Treaty of Lausanne, signed on 24 July 1923, led to the end of the occupation. The last troops of the Allies departed from the city on 4 October 1923, and the first troops of the Ankara government, commanded by ?ükrü Naili Pasha (3rd Corps), entered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the Liberation Day of Constantinople (Turkish: Istanbul'un Kurtulu) and is commemorated every year on its anniversary.[12]
[*]
1918 saw the first time the city had changed hands since the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Along with the Occupation of Smyrna, it spurred the establishment of the Turkish National Movement, leading to the Turkish War of Independence.[13]
Contents
[*] Background
Greek aviators at the San Stefano airfield, after the Mudros armistice
The Ottomans estimated that the population of Constantinople in 1920 was between 800,000 and 1,200,000 inhabitants, having collected population statistics from the various religious bodies. The uncertainty in the figure reflects the uncounted population of war refugees and disagreements as to the boundaries of the city. Half or less were Muslim, the rest being largely Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Jewish; there had been a substantial Western European population before the war.[14]
[*]
Legality of the occupation
The Armistice of Mudros of 30 October 1918, which ended Ottoman involvement in World War I, mentions the occupation of Bosporus fort and Dardanelles fort. That day, Somerset Gough-Calthorpe, the British signatory, stated the Triple Entente's position that they had no intention to dismantle the government or place it under military occupation by "occupying Constantinople".[15] This verbal promise and lack of mention of the occupation of Constantinople in the armistice did not change the realities for the Ottoman Empire. Admiral Somerset Gough-Calthorpe puts the British position as "No kind of favour whatsoever to any Turk and to hold out no hope for them".[16] The Ottoman side returned to the capital with a personal letter from Calthorpe, intended for Rauf Orbay, in which he promised on behalf of the British government that only British and French troops would be used in the occupation of the Straits fortifications. A small number of Ottoman troops could be allowed to stay on in the occupied areas as a symbol of sovereignty.[17]
[*] Military administration
The armored cruiser Averof of the Greek Navy in the Bosphorus, 1919
British occupation forces at the port of Karaköy, in front of the coastal tram line. The art nouveau style building in the background is the Turkish Maritime Lines (Türkiye Denizcilik ??letmeleri) headquarters.[18] The Allies began to occupy Ottoman territory soon after the Armistice of Mudros; 13 days later, a French brigade entered Constantinople, on November 12, 1918. The first British troops entered the city on the following day. Early in December 1918, Allied troops occupied sections of Constantinople and set up an Allied military administration.
[*]
On February 7, 1919, an Italian battalion with 19 officers and 740 soldiers landed at the Galata pier; one day later they were joined by 283 Carabinieri, commanded by Colonel Balduino Caprini. The Carabinieri assumed police tasks.[3] On February 10, 1919, the commission divided the city into three zones for police matters: Stambul (the old city) was assigned to the French, Pera-Galata to the British and Kadiköy and Scutari to the Italians.[3] High Commissioner Admiral Somerset Gough-Calthorpe was assigned as the military adviser to Constantinople.
[*]
Establishing authority
Further information: Malta exiles
The British rounded up a number of members of the old establishment and interned them in Malta, awaiting their trial for alleged crimes during World War I. Calthorpe included only Turkish members of the Government of Tevfik Pasha and the military/political personalities. He wanted to send a message that a military occupation was in effect and failure to comply would end with harsh punishment. His position was not shared with other partners. The French Government's response to those accused was "distinction to disadvantage of Muslim-Turks while Bulgarian, Austrian and German offenders were as yet neither arrested nor molested".[19] However, the government and the Sultan understood the message. In February 1919, Allies were informed that the Ottoman Empire was in compliance with its full apparatus to the occupation forces. Any source of conflict (including Armenian questions) would be investigated by a commission, to which neutral governments could attach two legal superintendents.[19] Calthorpe's correspondence to Foreign Office was "The action undertaken for the arrests was very satisfactory, and has, I think, intimidated the Committee of Union and Progress of Constantinople".[20]
[*]
Conflict resolution
Main article: Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20
Constantinople, May 23, 1919: Protests against the occupation
Calthorpe's message was fully noted by the Sultan. There was an eastern tradition of presenting gifts to the authority during serious conflicts, sometimes "falling of heads". There was no higher goal than preserving the integrity of the Ottoman Institution. If Calthorpe's anger could be calmed down by foisting the blame on a few members of the Committee of Union and Progress, the Ottoman Empire could thereby receive more lenient treatment at the Paris peace conference.[21] The trials began in Constantinople on April 28, 1919. The prosecution presented "forty-two authenticated documents substantiating the charges therein, many bearing dates, identification of senders of the cipher telegrams and letters, and names of recipients."[22] On July 22, the court-martial found several defendants guilty of subverting constitutionalism by force and found them responsible for massacres.[23] During its whole existence from April 28, 1919, to March 29, 1920, Ottoman trials were performed very poorly and with increasing inefficiency, as presumed guilty people were already intended as a sacrifice to save the Empire. However, as an occupation authority, the historical rightfulness of the Allies was at stake. Calthorpe wrote to London: "proving to be a farce and injurious to our own prestige and to that of the Turkish government".[24] The Allies considered Ottoman trials as a travesty of justice, so Ottoman justice had to be replaced with Western justice by moving the trials to Malta as "International" trials. The "International" trials declined to use any evidence developed by the Ottoman tribunals. When the International trials were staged, Calthorpe was replaced by John de Robeck. John de Robeck said regarding the trials "that its findings cannot be held of any account at all."[25] All of the Malta exiles were released.
[*]
A new movement
Further information: Turkish national movement
Allied occupation troops marching along the Grande Rue de Péra
Calthorpe was alarmed when he learned that the victor of Gallipoli had become the inspector general for Anatolia, and Mustafa Kemal's behavior during this period did nothing to improve matters. Calthorpe urged that Kemal be recalled. Thanks to friends and sympathizers of Mustafa Kemal's in government circles, a 'compromise' was developed whereby the power of the inspector general was curbed, at least on paper. "Inspector General" became a title that had no power to command. On June 23, 1919, Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe began to understand Kemal and his role in the establishment of the Turkish national movement. He sent a report about Mustafa Kemal to the Foreign Office. His remarks were downplayed by George Kidson of the Eastern Department. Captain Hurst (British army) in Samsun warned Calthorpe one more time about the Turkish national movement, but his units were replaced with a brigade of Gurkhas.
M1 in Constantinople.
Arthur Gough-Calthorpe was assigned to another position on August 5, 1919, and left Constantinople.
Death of a Turkish soldier during a British raid against M?z?ka watchhouse at ?ehzadeba?? on March 16, 1920
John de Robeck, August 1919–1922
In August 1919 John de Robeck replaced Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe with the title of "Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, and High Commissioner at Constantinople". He was responsible for activities regarding Russia and Turkey (Ottoman Empire-Turkish national movement). John de Robeck was very worried by the defiant mood of the Ottoman parliament. When 1920 arrived, he was concerned by reports that substantial stocks of arms were reaching Turkish revolutionaries, some from French and Italian sources. In one of his letters to London, he asked: "Against whom would these sources be employed?"
[*] In London, the Conference of London (February 1920) took place; it featured discussions about settling the treaty terms to be offered in San Remo. John de Robeck reminded participants that Anatolia was moving into a resistance stage. There were arguments of "National Pact" (Misak-? Milli) circulating, and if these were solidified, it would take a longer time and more resources to handle the case (partitioning of the Ottoman Empire). He tried to persuade the leaders to take quick action and control the Sultan and pressure the rebels (from both directions). This request posed awkward problems at the highest level: promises for national sovereignty were on the table and the United States was fast withdrawing into isolation.
[*] Treaty of Sevres
[*] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Occupation of Constantinople" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
[*] Ottoman parliament of 1920
See also: Khilafat Movement and Conference of London (February 1920)
The newly elected Ottoman parliament in Constantinople did not recognize the occupation; they developed a National Pact (Misak-? Milli). They adopted six principles, which called for self-determination, the security of Constantinople, the opening of the Straits, and the abolition of the capitulations. While in Constantinople self-determination and protection of the Ottoman Empire were voiced, the Khilafat Movement in India tried to influence the British government to protect the caliphate of the Ottoman empire, and although it was mainly a Muslim religious movement, the Khilafat struggle was becoming a part of the wider Indian independence movement. Both these two movements (Misak-? Milli and the Khilafat Movement) shared a lot of notions on the ideological level, and during the Conference of London (February 1920) Allies concentrated on these issues.
The Ottoman Empire lost World War I, but Misak-? Milli with the local Khilafat Movement was still fighting the Allies.
[*] Solidification of the partitioning, February 1920
See also: Conference of London (February 1920) and San Remo conference
The plans for partitioning of the Ottoman Empire needed to be solidified. At the Conference of London on March 4, 1920, the Triple Entente decided to implement its previous (secret) agreements and form what would be the Treaty of Sèvres. In doing so, all forms of resistance originating from the Ottoman Empire (rebellions, Sultan, etc.) had to be dismantled. The Allies' military forces in Constantinople ordered that the necessary actions be taken; also the political side increased efforts to put the Treaty of Sèvres into writing.
On the political side, negotiations for the Treaty of Sèvres presumed a Greek (Christian administration), a French-Armenian (Christian administration), Italian occupation region (Christian administration) and Wilsonian Armenia (Christian administration) over what was the Ottoman Empire (Muslim administration). Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire perceived this plan as depriving them of sovereignty. British intelligence registered the Turkish national movement as a movement of the Muslim citizens of Anatolia. The Muslim unrest all around Anatolia brought two arguments to the British government regarding the new establishments: the Muslim administration (Ottoman Empire) was not safe for Christians; the Treaty of Sèvres was the only way that Christians could be safe. Enforcing the Treaty of Sèvres could not happen without repressing Mustafa Kemal's (Turkish Revolutionaries) national movement.
[*] On the military side the British claimed that if the Allies could not control Anatolia at that time, they could at least control Constantinople. The plan was step by step beginning from Constantinople, dismantle every organization and slowly move deep into Anatolia. That meant facing what will be called the Turkish War of Independence. The British foreign department was asked to devise a plan to ease this path, and developed the same plan that they had used during the Arab revolt. This policy of breaking down authority by separating the Sultan from his government, and working different millets against each other, such as the Christian millet against the Muslim millet, was the best solution if minimal British force was to be used.
Military occupation of Constantinople
[*] Dissolution of the parliament, March 1920
See also: Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
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The Telegram House was occupied on March 14. On the night of March 15 British troops began to occupy the key buildings and arrest Turkish nationalists. It was a very messy operation. The 10th division and military music school resisted the arrest. At least 10 students were killed by gunfire from British Indian troops. The total death toll is unknown. On March 18 the Ottoman parliament met and sent a formal protest to the Allies, declaring: "it was unacceptable to arrest five of its members". This marked the end of the Ottoman political system. The British move on the parliament left the Sultan as sole controller of the Empire; without parliament the Sultan stood alone with the British. Beginning with March 18, the Sultan became the puppet of the British foreign office, saying, "There would be no one left to blame for what will be coming soon"; the Sultan revealed his own version of the declaration of dissolution on April 11, after approximately 150 politicians were exiled to Malta.[citation needed]
[*] The dissolution of the parliament was followed by the raid and closing of the journal Yeni Gün (New Day). Yeni Gün was owned by Yunus Nadi Abal?o?lu, an influential journalist, and was the main media organ publishing the news to the outside world.[citation needed]
[*] Official declaration, March 16, 1920
On March 16, 1920, the third day of hostilities, the Allied forces declared the occupation:
In an effort to prevent the spread of Turkish nationalism, General Sir George Milne and an Allied force occupied ?stanbul.
- The Allies gave assurances that they had no intention of taking over the government.
- The Allies sought to keep the Straits open and to protect the Armenians.
- The Allies persuaded the Ottoman government to denounce the Turkish nationalists and sent many into exile.
- The Sultan had established a Damad Ferid government.[26]
[*]
Enforcing the peace treaty
Early pressure on the insurgency, April–June 1920
The British argued that the insurgency of the Turkish revolutionaries should be suppressed by local forces in Anatolia, with the help of British training and arms. In response to a formal British request, the Constantinople government appointed an extraordinary Anatolian general inspector Süleyman ?efik Pasha and a new Security Army, Kuva-i Inzibatiye, to enforce central government control with British support. The British also supported local guerrilla groups in the Anatolian heartland (they were officially called 'independent armies') with money and arms.
[*]
Ultimately, these forces were unsuccessful in quelling the nationalist movement. A clash outside ?zmit quickly escalated, with British forces opening fire on the nationalists, and bombing them from the air. Although the attack forced the nationalists to retreat, the weakness of the British position had been made apparent. The British commander, General George Milne, asked for reinforcements of at least twenty-seven divisions. However, the British government was unwilling to channel these forces, as a deployment of this size could have had political consequences that were beyond the British government's capacity to handle.
[*]
Some Circassian exiles, who had emigrated to the Empire after the Circassian genocide may have supported the British—notably Ahmet Anzavur, who led the Kuva-i Inzibatiye and ravaged the countryside.[27] Others, such as Hussein Reuf Orbay, who was of Ubykh descent, remained loyal to Atatürk, and was exiled to Malta in 1920 when British forces took the city.[28][self-published source] The British were quick to accept the fact that the nationalistic movement, which had hardened during World War I, could not be faced without the deployment of consistent and well-trained forces. On June 25 the Kuva-i Inzibatiye was dismantled on the advice of the British, as they were becoming a liability. Presentation of the treaty to the Sultan, June 1920
The treaty terms were presented to the Sultan in the middle of June. The treaty was harsher than anyone expected. However, because of the military pressure placed on the insurgency from April to June 1920, the Allies did not expect that there would be any serious opposition.
[*]
In the meantime, however, Mustafa Kemal had set up a rival government in Ankara, with the Grand National Assembly. On October 18, the government of Damat Ferid Pasha was replaced by a provisional ministry under Ahmed Tevfik Pasha as Grand Vizier, who announced an intention to convoke the Senate with the purpose of ratification of the Treaty, provided that national unity be achieved. This required seeking cooperation with Mustafa Kemal. The latter expressed disdain to the Treaty and started a military assault. As a result, the Turkish Government issued a note to the Entente that the ratification of the Treaty was impossible at that time.[29]
[*] End of the occupation
Turkish troops enter Constantinople on 6 October 1923.
The success of the Turkish National Movement against the French and Greeks was followed by their forces threatening the Allied forces at Chanak. The British decided to resist any attempt to penetrate the neutral zone of the Straits. Kemal was persuaded by the French to order his forces to avoid any incident at Chanak. Nevertheless, the Chanak Crisis nearly resulted in hostilities, these being avoided on 11 October 1922, when the Armistice of Mudanya was signed, bringing the Turkish War of Independence to an end.[30][31] The handling of this crisis caused the collapse of David Lloyd George's Ministry on 19 October 1922.[32]
[*] Following the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922), the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was expelled from the city. Leaving aboard the British warship HMS Malaya on 17 November 1922, he went into exile and died in Sanremo, Italy, on 16 May 1926.
[*]
Negotiations for a new peace treaty with Turkey began at the Conference of Lausanne on 20 November 1922 and reopened after a break on 23 April 1923. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923. Under the terms of the treaty, Allied forces started evacuating Constantinople on 23 August 1923 and completed the task on 4 October 1923 – British, Italian, and French troops departing pari passu.[12]
Turkish troops enter Kadiköy on 6 October 1923.
Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by ?ükrü Naili Pasha (3rd Corps), entered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the Liberation Day of Constantinople (Turkish: ?stanbul'un Kurtulu?u) and is commemorated every year on its anniversary.[12] On 29 October 1923, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Turkish Republic, with Ankara as its capital. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became the Republic's first President.
[*] List of Allied High Commissioners
France:
[*]
Italy:
- November 1918 – January 1919: Count Carlo Sforza
- September 1920 – October 22, 1923: Marchese Eugenio Camillo Garroni
[*]
United Kingdom:
[*]
Greece:
- 1918–1923: Efthimios Kanellopoulos
[*]
References
- Darwin, J. G. (Feb 1980). "The Chanak Crisis and the British Cabinet". History. 65 (213): 32–48. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1980.tb02082.x.
[*]
Resources
[*] "Constantinople occupied by British and Indian troops". British Pathé. October 30–31, 1918. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
[*] "Occupation during and after the War (Ottoman Empire) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)". encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net.
[*] "Missioni all'estero:1918 – 1923. In Turchia: da Costantinopoli all'Anatolia" (in Italian). Arma dei Carabinieri. Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
[*] Hülya Toker Mütareke döneminde ?stanbul Rumlar?, Genelkurmay Bas?mevi, 2006, ISBN 9754093555, page 29. (in Turkish)
[*] Zekeriya Türkmen, (2002), ?stanbul’un i?gali ve ??gal Dönemindeki Uygulamalar (13 Kas?m 1918 – 16 Mart 1920), Atatürk Ara?t?rma Merkezi Dergisi, XVIII (53): pages 338–339. (in Turkish)
[*] Paul G. Halpern: The Mediterranean Fleet, 1919–1929, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011, ISBN 1409427560, page 3.
[*] Metin Ataç: ?stiklal Harbi'nde Bahriyemiz, Genelkurmay Ba?kanl???, 2003, ISBN 9754092397, page 20. (in Turkish)
[*] Mustafa Budak: ?dealden gerçe?e: Misâk-? Millî'den Lozan'a d?? politika, Küre Yay?nlar?, 2002, page 21. (in Turkish)
[*] Ertan E?ribel, Ufuk Özcan: Türk sosyologlar? ve eserleri, Kitabevi, 2010, ISBN 6054208624, page 352. (in Turkish)
[*] T.C. Genelkurmay Harp Tarihi Ba?kanl??? Yay?nlar?, Türk ?stiklâl Harbine Kat?lan Tümen ve Daha Üst Kademelerdeki Komutanlar?n Biyografileri, Genelkurmay Bas?mevi, 1972, p. 51.
[*] T.C. Genelkurmay Harp Tarihi Ba?kanl??? Yay?nlar?, Türk ?stiklâl Harbine Kat?lan Tümen ve Daha Üst Kademelerdeki Komutanlar?n Biyografileri, Genelkurmay Ba?kanl??? Bas?mevi, Ankara, 1972, p. 118. (in Turkish)
[*] "6 Ekim ?stanbul'un Kurtulu?u". Sözcü. 6 October 2017.
[*] "Turkey". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
[*] Clarence Richard Johnson Constantinople To-day; Or, The Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople; a Study in Oriental Social Life, Clarence Johnson, ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1922) p. 164ff.
[*] Criss, Bilge, Constantinople under Allied Occupation 1918–1923, (1999) p. 1.
[*] Simsir BDOA, 1:6.
[*] Yakn Tarihimiz, Vol. 2, p. 49.
[*] "index | Arama sonuçlar? | Türkiye Denizcilik ??letmeleri A.?." tdi.gov.tr. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
[*] Public Record Office, Foreign Office, 371/4172/28138
[*] Public Record Office, Foreign Office, 371/4172/23004
[*] Vahakn N. Dadrian, "The Documentation of the World War I Armenian Massacres in the Proceedings of the Turkish Military Tribunal", International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 554; idem, "The Turkish Military Tribunal's Prosecution of the Authors of the Armenian Genocide: Four Major Court-Martial Series", Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 11 (1997): 31.
[*] Dadrian, "The Turkish Military Tribunal's Prosecution", p. 45.
[*] The verdict is reproduced in Akçam, Armenien und der Völkermord, pp. 353–64.
[*] Public Record Office, Foreign Office, 371/4174/118377
[*] Public Record Office, Foreign Office, 371/4174/136069
[*] League of Nations Archives, Palais des Nations, CH-1211, Geneva 10, Switzerland Center for the Study of Global Change,
[*] Singh, K Gajendra (7 January 2004). "Occupation case studies: Algeria and Turkey". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 2 February 2004.
[*] Natho, Kadir I. (2009). Circassian History. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4653-1699-8.
[*] Current History, Volume 13, New York Times Co., 1921, "Dividing the Former Turkish Empire" pp. 441–444 (retrieved October 26, 2010)
[*] Psomiades, Harry J. (2000). The Eastern Question, the Last Phase: a study in Greek-Turkish diplomacy. New York: Pella. pp. 27–38. ISBN 0-918618-79-7.
[*] Macfie, A. L. (1979). "The Chanak affair (September–October 1922)". Balkan Studies. 20 (2): 309–41.
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TODAY IS MAY 19 2022 CELEBRATING THE START OF THE TURKISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 103 YEARS AGO IN MAY 19 1919. IT IS AN INCENTIVE TO RE DISCOVER WHAT REALLY HAPPENED.
3rd MARCH 1924 – THE ABOLISHMENT OF THE LAST CALIPHATE
https://www.islam21c.com/islamic-thought...arch-1924/
OTTOMAN DEFEAT - THE OCCUPATION OF CONSTANTINOPLE
THE REVOLT TO END THE OTTOMAN SULTANATE -
THE 1908 YOUNG TURK REVOLUTION
HOW THE YOUNG TURKS WEAKENED THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
[/url][url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S3aL8Gm63lg]
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE WHO WERE THE YOUNG TURKS
Faisal Warraich
SON PADISAH VAHDETTIN'IN VATANI TERK EDISI
SON OSMANLILAR BELGESEL
1.BÖLÜM ''Meçhule Yolculuk'' Royal Family of Ottoman
LAST WORDS OF SULTAN ABDUL HAMID 1
THE STORY OF PAYTAHT ABDUL HAMID SERIES
ARMISTICE OF MUDANYA
Mudanya, Bursa, Turkey
The Armistice of Mudanya (in Turkish: Mudanya Mütarekesi) was an agreement between Turkey (the Grand National Assembly of Turkey) on the one hand, and Italy, France and Britain on the other hand, signed in the Ottoman town of Mudanya, in the province of Bursa, on 11 October 1922. The Kingdom of Greece acceded to the armistice on 14 October 1922.
Context
Under the Armistice of Mudros, ending its part in World War I, the Allied powers were allowed to occupy the forts of the Straits of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus. Subsequently, they also occupied Constantinople. They also decided to partition the Ottoman Empire. This was resisted by Turkish nationalists in the form of the Grand National Assembly. Having achieved victories over occupying powers in Anatolia, Turkish forces were advancing on the neutral zone of the Straits.
On 5 September 1922, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk asserted the Turkish claim to East Thrace (Trakya). On 15 September, the British cabinet decided that British forces should maintain their position, and issued an ultimatum. On 19 September Britain decided to deny Constantinople and Thrace to the Turkish nationalists, but France, Yugoslavia, Italy, and the British Dominions objected to another war. Raymond Poincaré, the French prime minister, tried to persuade the Turks to respect the neutral zone. The allies asked for a peace conference on 23 September, to which Mustafa Kemal agreed on 29 September, nominating Mudanya as the venue.[1] At the same time, the British cabinet decided to abandon East Thrace to the Turks.[2]
Talks were convened on 3 October, leading to the Armistice of Mudanya being signed on 11 October.The Greeks acceded to the terms on 13 October.[1]
Terms of the Armistice
Under the terms agreed:
- Greek troops were to leave Eastern Thrace as far as the Maritsa River (River Meriç) and Adrianople (Edirne) within 15 days.
- Civil power would become Turkish 30 days after the Greek troops left.
- No more than 8,000 Turkish gendarmes were to be in East Thrace until a peace treaty was completed.[3]
[*]
The final settlement between the parties was worked out at the Conference of Lausanne from 21 November 1922 to 24 February 1923 and from 23 April to 24 July 1923, leading to the Treaty of Lausanne.
Allied troops continued to occupy the neutral zone, until they were withdrawn under the terms of the treaty.[citation needed][4]
See also
[*] Turkish War of Independence
[*] Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)
[/list]
Sources
See Occupation of Constantinople
[*] A.L. Macfie, 'The Chanak affair (September–October 1922)' Balkan Studies 20(2) (1979), 328.
[*] Harry J. Psomiades, The Eastern Question, the Last Phase: a study in Greek-Turkish diplomacy (Pella, New York 2000), 27-35.
TREATY OF LAUSANNE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne
The Treaty of Lausanne (French: Traité de Lausanne) was a peace treaty negotiated during the Lausanne Conference of 1922–23 and signed in the Palais de Rumine,[1][2] Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24 July 1923.[3] The treaty officially settled the conflict that had originally existed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied French Republic, British Empire, Kingdom of Italy, Empire of Japan, Kingdom of Greece, and the Kingdom of Romania since the onset of World War I.[4] The original text of the treaty is in French.[4] It was the result of a second attempt at peace after the failed and unratified Treaty of Sèvres, which aimed to divide Ottoman lands. The earlier treaty had been signed in 1920, but later rejected by the Turkish national movement who fought against its terms. As a result of Greco-Turkish War, ?zmir was retrieved and Armistice of Mudanya was signed in October 1922.[5][4] It provided for the Greek-Turkish population exchange and allowed unrestricted civilian passage through the Turkish Straits (but not military).
The treaty was ratified by Turkey on 23 August 1923,[6][7] and all of the other signatories by 16 July 1924.[8] It came into force on 6 August 1924, when the instruments of ratification were officially deposited in Paris.[4]A Declaration of Amnesty granted immunity for crimes committed between 1914 and 1922, notably the Armenian genocide. Historian Hans-Lukas Kieser states, "Lausanne tacitly endorsed comprehensive policies of expulsion and extermination of hetero-ethnic and hetero-religious groups".[9]
For other uses, see Treaty of Lausanne (disambiguation).
Treaty of LausanneTreaty of Peace and Exchange of War Prisoners with Turkey Signed at Lausanne
Accord relatif à la restitution réciproque des internés civils et à l'échange des prisonniers de guerre, signé à Lausanne
undefined
Borders of Turkey set by the Treaty of Lausanne
Signed
24 July 1923
Location
Lausanne, Switzerland
Effective
6 August 1924
Condition
Following ratification by Turkey and any three of the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Japan, the treaty would come into force for those "high contracting parties" and thereafter for each additional signatory upon deposit of ratification
Signatories
Depositary
French Republic
Language
French
Full text
Treaty of Lausanne at Wikisource
The Treaty of Lausanne (French: Traité de Lausanne) was a peace treaty negotiated during the Lausanne Conference of 1922–23 and signed in the Palais de Rumine,[1][2] Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24 July 1923.[3] The treaty officially settled the conflict that had originally existed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied French Republic, British Empire, Kingdom of Italy, Empire of Japan, Kingdom of Greece, and the Kingdom of Romania since the onset of World War I.[4] The original text of the treaty is in French.[4] It was the result of a second attempt at peace after the failed and unratified Treaty of Sèvres, which aimed to divide Ottoman lands. The earlier treaty had been signed in 1920, but later rejected by the Turkish national movement who fought against its terms. As a result of Greco-Turkish War, ?zmir was retrieved and Armistice of Mudanya was signed in October 1922.[5][4] It provided for the Greek-Turkish population exchange and allowed unrestricted civilian passage through the Turkish Straits (but not military).
The treaty was ratified by Turkey on 23 August 1923,[6][7] and all of the other signatories by 16 July 1924.[8] It came into force on 6 August 1924, when the instruments of ratification were officially deposited in Paris.[4]
A Declaration of Amnesty granted immunity for crimes committed between 1914 and 1922, notably the Armenian genocide. Historian Hans-Lukas Kieser states, "Lausanne tacitly endorsed comprehensive policies of expulsion and extermination of hetero-ethnic and hetero-religious groups".[9]
Contents
[*] 1 Background
[*] 2 Stipulations
[*] 3 Declaration of Amnesty
[*] 4 Legacy
[*] 5 See also
[*] 6 Notes and references
[*] 7 External links
Background
Main article: Lausanne Conference of 1922–23
See also: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and Turkish War of Independence
undefined
Borders of Turkey according to the unratified Treaty of Sèvres (1920) which was annulled and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) in the aftermath of the Turkish War of Independence.
After the withdrawal of the Greek forces in Asia Minor and the expulsion of the Ottoman Sultan by the Turkish army under the command of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the Ankara-based Kemalist government of the Turkish National Movement rejected the territorial losses imposed by the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres previously signed by the Ottoman Empire but remained unratified. Britain had sought to undermine Turkish influence in Mesopotamia and Kirkuk by seeking the creation of a Kurdish state in Eastern Anatolia. Secular Kemalist rhetoric relieved some of the international concerns about the future of Armenians who had survived the 1915 Armenian genocide, and support for Kurdish self determination similarly declined. Under the Treaty of Lausanne, signed in 1923, Eastern Anatolia became part of modern-day Turkey, in exchange for Turkey's relinquishing Ottoman-era claims to the oil-rich Arab lands.[10]
Negotiations were undertaken during the Conference of Lausanne. ?smet ?nönü was the chief negotiator for Turkey. Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary of that time, was the chief negotiator for the Allies, while Eleftherios Venizelos negotiated on behalf of Greece. The negotiations took many months. On 20 November 1922, the peace conference was opened; the treaty was signed on 24 July after eight months of arduous negotiation, punctuated by several Turkish withdrawals. The Allied delegation included U.S. Admiral Mark L. Bristol, who served as the United States High Commissioner and supported Turkish efforts.[11]
Stipulations
The treaty was composed of 143 articles with major sections including:[12]
Treaty Parts
Convention on the Turkish Straits
Trade (abolition of capitulations) – Article 28 provided: "Each of the High Contracting Parties hereby accepts, in so far as it is concerned, the complete abolition of the Capitulations in Turkey in every respect."[13]
Agreements
Binding letters
The treaty provided for the independence of the Republic of Turkey but also for the protection of the Greek Orthodox Christian minority in Turkey and the Muslim minority in Greece. However, most of the Christian population of Turkey and the Muslim population of Greece had already been deported under the earlier Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations signed by Greece and Turkey. Only the Greek Orthodox of Constantinople, Imbros and Tenedos (about 270,000 at that time),[14] and the Muslim population of Western Thrace (about 129,120 in 1923) were excluded.[15] Article 14 of the treaty granted the islands of Imbros (Gökçeada) and Tenedos (Bozcaada) "special administrative organisation", a right that was revoked by the Turkish government on 17 February 1926. Turkey also formally accepted the loss of Cyprus (which had been leased to the British Empire following the Congress of Berlin in 1878, but de jure remained an Ottoman territory until World War I). Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (both of which had been occupied by British forces with the pretext of "putting down the Urabi Revolt and restoring order" in 1882, but de jure remained Ottoman territories until World War I) were given to the British Empire, which had unilaterally annexed them on 5 November 1914.[4] The fate of the province of Mosul was left to be determined through the League of Nations. Turkey also explicitly renounced all claims to the Dodecanese Islands, which Italy had been obliged to return to Turkey according to Article 2 of the Treaty of Ouchy in 1912 following the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912).[16][17]
Summary of Contents of Treaty
Lausanne Treaty I. Treaty of Peace[18] Parts
Sections
Preamble
Part I
Political Clauses
Part II
Financial Clauses
Part III.
Economic clauses
Part IV
Communications and Sanitary Questions
Part V.
Miscellaneous Provisions
Part IV.
Convention respecting conditions of Residence and Business and Jurisdiction
Part V
Commercial Convention
Part VI
Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations
Part VII
Agreement between Greece and Turkey respecting the reciprocal restitution of interned civilians and the exchange of prisoners of war
Part VIII
Declaration relating to the Amnesty
Part IX
Declaration relating to Muslim properties in Greece
Part X
Declaration relating to sanitary matters in Turkey;
Part XI
Declaration relating to the administration of justice in Turkey;
Part XII
Protocol relation to certain concessions granted in the Ottoman Empire
Part XIII
Protocol relating to the accession of Belgium and Portugal to contain provisions and instruments signed at Lausanne
Part XIV
Protocol relating to the evacuation of the Turkish territory occupied by the British, French and Italian forces
Part XV
Protocol relative to the Karagatch territory and the Islands of Imbros and Tenedos
Part XVI
Protocol relative to the Treaty concluded at Sèvres between the principal Allied Powers and Greece on 10 August 1920, concerning the protection of minorities in Greece, and the Treaty concluded on the same day between the same Powers relating to Thrace.
Part XVII
Protocol relating to signature by the Serb-Croat-Slovene State
Borders
Adakale Island in River Danube was forgotten during the peace talks at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which allowed it to remain a de jure Turkish territory and the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II's private possession until the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 (de facto until Romania unilaterally declared its sovereignty on the island in 1919 and further strengthened this claim with the Treaty of Trianon in 1920.)[19] The island was submerged during the construction of the Iron Gates hydroelectric plant in 1970, which also removed the possibility of a potential legal claim by the descendants of Abdul Hamid II.
The treaty delimited the boundaries of Greece, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Specifically, the treaty provisioned that all the islands, islets and other territories in the Aegean Sea (Eastern Mediterranean in the original text) beyond three miles from the Turkish shores were ceded to Greece, with the exception of the islands of Dodecanese, Imbros and Tenedos (Articles 6 and 12). There is a special notation in both articles, that, unless it is explicitly stated otherwise, the Turkish sovereignty extends three miles from Asia Minor shores. The Greek population of Imbros and Tenedos was not included in the population exchange and would be protected under the stipulations of the protection of the minorities in Turkey (Article 38).
The major issue of the war reparations, demanded from Greece by Turkey, was abandoned after Greece agreed to cede Karaa?aç to Turkey.
Turkey also formally ceded all claims on the Dodecanese Islands (Article 15); Cyprus (Article 20);[20] Egypt and Sudan (Article 17); Syria and Iraq (Article 3); and (along with the Treaty of Ankara) settled the boundaries of the latter two nations.[4]
The territories to the south of Syria and Iraq on the Arabian Peninsula, which still remained under Turkish control when the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918, were not explicitly identified in the text of the treaty. However, the definition of Turkey's southern border in Article 3 also meant that Turkey officially ceded them. These territories included the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, Asir and parts of Hejaz like the city of Medina. They were held by Turkish forces until 23 January 1919.[21][22]
By Articles 25 and 26 of the Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey officially ceded Adakale Island in the Danube River to Romania by formally recognizing the related provisions in the Treaty of Trianon of 1920.[4][19] Due to a diplomatic irregularity at the 1878 Congress of Berlin, the island had technically remained part of the Ottoman Empire.
Turkey also renounced its privileges in Libya which were defined by Article 10 of the Treaty of Ouchy in 1912 (per Article 22 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.)[4]
Agreements
Among many agreements, there was a separate agreement with the United States, the Chester concession. In the United States, the treaty was opposed by several groups, including the Committee Opposed to the Lausanne Treaty (COLT), and on 18 January 1927, the United States Senate refused to ratify the treaty by a vote of 50–34, six votes short of the two-thirds required by the Constitution.[23] Consequently, Turkey annulled the concession.[12]
Besides, Turkey was obliged to instate four European advisors on juridical matters for five years.[24] The advisors were to observe a juridical reform in Turkey. The advisors contract could be renewed if the suggested reforms would not have taken place.[24] Subsequently, Turkey worked on and announced a new Turkish constitution and reformed the Turkish justice system by including the Swiss Civil code, the Italian criminal law and the German Commercial law before completion of the five years in question.[24]
Declaration of Amnesty
Declaration of Amnesty
Annex VIII to the treaty, called "Declaration of Amnesty", granted immunity to the perpetrators of any crimes "connected to political events" committed between 1914 and 1922.[25][26] The treaty thus put an end to the effort to prosecute Ottoman war criminals for crimes such as the Armenian genocide, Assyrian genocide, and Greek genocide.[27][28] and codified impunity for the genocide.[29]
Legacy
Turkish delegation after having signed the Treaty of Lausanne. The delegation was led by ?smet ?nönü (in the middle).
The Treaty of Lausanne led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire.[4] As result of the Treaty, the Ottoman public debt was divided between Turkey and the countries which emerged from the former Ottoman Empire.[30] The convention on the Straits lasted for thirteen years and was replaced with the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits in 1936.[31] The customs limitations in the treaty were shortly after reworked.
Hatay Province remained a part of the French Mandate of Syria according to the Treaty of Lausanne, but in 1938 gained its independence as the Hatay State, which later joined Turkey after a referendum in 1939. Political amnesty was given to opponents of the new Turkish regime but the government reserved the right to make 150 exceptions.[32] The 150 personae non gratae of Turkey (mostly descendants of the Ottoman dynasty) slowly acquired citizenship – the last one in 1974.[citation needed]
Lloyd George declared the treaty an "abject, cowardly and infamous surrender".[29][33]
Historian Norman Naimark states, "The Lausanne Treaty served as a pivotal international precedent for transferring populations against their will throughout the twentieth century."[34]
Historian Ronald Grigor Suny states that the treaty "essentially confirmed the effectiveness of deportations or even murderous ethnic cleansing as a potential solution to population problems".[35]
Historian Hans-Lukas Kieser states, "Lausanne tacitly endorsed comprehensive policies of expulsion and extermination of hetero-ethnic and hetero-religious groups, with fatal attraction for German revisionists and many other nationalists".[9]
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'HELLO TURKIYE ' CAMPAIGN TO RAISE GLOBAL AWARENESS
WHY TURKEY CHANGED IT'S NAME TO TURKIYE ?
WHY TURKEY IS NOW 'TURKIYE' AND WHY THAT MATTERS
https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/why-tu...ters-52602
Turkiye's authorities have decided to rebrand their country's international image, here is why.Earlier this month, Turkiye's President Recep Tayyip Erdogan issued a communique, tweaking the country's internationally recognised name from "Turkey" to Turkiye.
"The word Turkiye represents and expresses the culture, civilisation, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way," said the communique.
Countries changing or tweaking their names is not as unusual as one might think. The business of nation-branding can happen for a whole host of reasons, whether to rise above cliches, present a more positive image or even for politics.
In recent years a whole industry has arisen catering to countries and cities seeking to promote themselves internationally and taking charge of how the world sees them and their unique identity.
Most recently, the Netherlands dropped the name "Holland"
in a bid to simplify its image to the world. And before that, "Macedonia" changed its name to North Macedonia due to a political dispute with Greece.
In 1935, Iran changed its name from Persia, a name that Westerners mainly used. The word Iran means Persian in Farsi, and at the time, it was felt that the country should call itself with the name used locally, not a name seemingly imposed from the outside.
The change of name reflected a will for the country to take charge of its destiny following the occupation of the country by the British and the Russians. As many as eleven countries have changed or amended their names over the decades.
So why Turkiye?
Well, in the Turkish language, the country is called Turkiye.
The country adopted this name after it declared independence in 1923 from the occupying Western powers.
Over the centuries, Europeans have referred to firstly the Ottoman state and then to Turkiye by many names. But the name that has stuck most is the Latin "Turquia'' and the more ubiquitous "Turkey."
Type "Turkey" into Google, and you will get a muddled set of images, articles, and dictionary definitions that conflate the country with Meleagris – otherwise known as the turkey, a large bird native to North America – which is famous for being served on Christmas menus or Thanksgiving dinners.
Flip through the Cambridge Dictionary and "turkey" is defined as "something that fails badly" or "a stupid or silly person."
That association, while not flattering, has its roots in a mix-up that goes back centuries.
One version of history has that when European colonisers set foot in North America, they ran into wild turkeys, a bird that they mistakenly assumed was similar to the guinea fowl, which was native to eastern Africa and imported to Europe through the Ottoman Empire. Europeans called the guinea fowl the turkey-cock or turkey-hen - and the rest is history, and a dinner table menu.
The vast majority of people in Turkiye feel that calling the country by its local variation only makes sense and is in keeping with the country's aims of determining how others should identify it.
In a nod to that, the recently published communique was clear that "within the scope of strengthening the 'Turkiye' brand, in all kinds of activities and correspondence, especially in official relations with other states and international institutions and organisations, necessary sensitivity will be shown on the use of the phrase 'Türkiye' instead of phrases such as 'Turkey,' 'Turkei,' 'Turquie' etc."
Yet, the government's announcement is only catching up with what some business associations have been practicing for decades.
January 2020 the Turkish Exporters' Assembly (TIM) and umbrella organisation of Turkish exports announced that it would use "Made in Turkiye" on all its labels in a bid to standardise branding and the identity of Turkish businesses on the international stage.
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WHERE DOES ISTANBUL's NAME COME FROM ?
https://www.trtworld.com/life/where-does...from-40763
It's the city of Constantine, the city of happiness, the city of Islam. Its history goes back millenia. Istanbul was formerly known as Byzantium, an ancient Greek colony. Rumour has it that King Byzas of Megara “took his colonists here in the 7th century BCE to establish a colony named Byzantium,” according to the All About Istanbul website. An oracle of Delphi had told Byzas “to settle across from the ‘land of the blind’ and Byzas believed earlier settlers on the Asian side – of Chalcedon – must have been ‘blind’ for overlooking the superb location at the entrance of the Bosporus strait, only access to the Black Sea,” suggests All About Istanbul.
Archaeologist and editor of ‘Arkeoloji ve Sanat’ (Archaeology and Art) magazine, Nezih Basgelen, has compiled and sent some information via email to TRT World. He says that the earliest name given to the historical peninsula that Istanbul is built on, was Byzantion/Bizantion. The name is supposedly derived from the Thracian name of Byzas/Vizas. According to old rumours, the city was established by King Bizas (possibly a variation on Byzas), the son of demigod Semestras raised by Thracian Buzie.
As for the name Istanbul, it came much later, says Professor Yakoob Ahmed of Istanbul University’s theology department, who teaches Islamic and Ottoman History there. After Byzantion, when the city was under Roman rule, it was re-named by Roman emperor Septimus Severus as Augusta Antonina. This was after his son. When the seat of the empire moved to the city in AD 330, it was labelled Secunda Roma (Second Rome). It was called Nova Roma (new Rome in Latin) starting from the fifth century, and its citizens, the Romaios. The name, however, did not stick.
Bizantion was a Thracian name, while in Ottoman papers, the Arabic and Armenian forms were also Byzantia, Byzandia, Buzantiye, Puzanta, Buzantis. From Islamic sources, one learns that there were others, too, such as, Rûmiyyetü’l-kübrâ (Grand Rome), Taht-? Rûm (Seat of Rome), Gulgule-i Rûm (sound of Rome) originating from Nova Roma.
Then, of course, there was Constantinopolis (Latin)/Constantinople (English). The name was derived from the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, who made the city the capital of his empire (AD 306 to 337). It was a common name and became official. The derivative of Konstantiniyye was used by Arabs and Persians, while the Ottomans utilised it in money and official correspondence.
Constantinopolis was the prevalent name used throughout Roman and Byzantine times, and the West used it for much longer than that, even when the city was under Ottoman rule (from AD 1453).
Famously, the Ottoman Empire used the variant of Konstantiniyye until the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, “until the Turkish Post Office officially changed the name in 1930 ... the city continued to bear the millenary name of Constantinople.”
“We are not sure how [the name Istanbul] was developed as it emerged from the Greek and we are not sure how far it goes back,” Ahmed says. “It means to the city, so if you see the word Constantinople it has the word Stan and Pol in it as it was called Constantinopolis. It simply means I Sten Pol meaning within the city, probably meaning within the old city walls.”
Locals in Constantinople referred to the city as I Sten Pol (within the city) from the 10th century, as evidenced in Armenian and Arabic sources (without the initial I-) and Ottoman sources, too. The “I Sten Pol” eventually morphed into one word, according to Marek Stachowski, Robert Woodhouse, authors of "The Etymology of ?stanbul: Making Optimal Use of the Evidence". In summary, it can be said that the Greek way of referring to Constantinople as “the city” carried over to others.
“When the Ottomans conquered Istanbul they by and large kept the old Greek names such as the Bosporus, Uskudar and of course Hagia Sophia,” Ahmed continues. “Halil Inalcik makes the claim that Fatih attempted to popularise the name ISLAMbul and that was used, but was never made official.”
“In reality the Ottomans were comfortable using the Ottomanised/Arabised name of Constantinople which they called Constantiniyye. They called it other names too such as Payitaht [meaning “capital] and Asitane but these were never officially used,” Ahmed explains.
According to a late scholar who spoke to the local press in 2012, during the Ottoman era the most common name for the city was the Arabic version of Constantinopolis, Konstantiniyye, and that it was also referred to as ‘Dersaadet’, the city of happiness, and big dervish convent, ‘Asitane’. Ottoman sultans did not get stuck on names - there was, though, one exception. “Sultan Mustafa the Third used ‘the city of Islam’ Islambol in his imperial writings.” The root of “Istanbul” is ‘stinpolis’ in Greek, and it means a form of the phrase “to the city”.
The city - in reference - is the city within city walls. “At the time, they never called the places outside city walls Istanbul. That is the main mistake nowadays. When they say the other side, they are never referring to Kadikoy [on the Asian side] but to Galata. When they refer to crossing over to the other side, they mean from Karakoy to Galata, Galata to Kuledibi. There is no Taksim yet, there is Uskudar. And there are seasonally used Princes’ Islands and villages on the Bosporus. That is, the Bosporus is not considered Istanbul.”
“Colloquially, it is ‘?eher’. When someone says he is going to Istanbul, he means ‘within the city walls’. Someone in Kadikoy says ‘I am going to Istanbul today’ and someone in Taksim says ‘I am going down to Istanbul today’. I find that a greater distinction,” scholars say.
[*] ISTANBUL
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul
[*]
NAMES OF ISTANBUL
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_Istanbul
[*]
Istanbul ( IST-an-BUUL,[7][8] formerly known as Constantinople[b] (Greek: Constantinopolis), is the largest city in Turkey, serving as the country's economic, cultural and historic hub. The city straddles the Bosporus strait, lying in both Europe and Asia, and has a population of over 15 million residents, comprising 19% of the population of Turkey.[4] Istanbul is the most populous European city,[c] and the world's 15th-largest city.
[/b]
[b]The city was founded as Byzantium (Greek: Byzantion) in the 7th century BCE by Greek settlers from Megara.[9] In 330 CE, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great made it his imperial capital, renaming it first as New Rome (Greek: Nea Rhom?; Latin: Nova Roma)[10] and then as Constantinople (Constantinopolis) after himself.[10][11] The city grew in size and influence, eventually becoming a beacon of the Silk Road and one of the most important cities in history.
The city served as an imperial capital for almost 1600 years: during the Roman/Byzantine (330–1204), Latin (1204–1261), late Byzantine (1261–1453), and Ottoman (1453–1922) empires.[12] The city played a key role in the advancement of Christianity during Roman/Byzantine times, hosting four of the first seven ecumenical councils before its transformation to an Islamic stronghold following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE—especially after becoming the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1517.[13] In 1923, after the Turkish War of Independence, Ankara replaced the city as the capital of the newly formed Republic of Turkey. In 1930, the city's name was officially changed to Istanbul, the Turkish rendering (romanized: eis t?n Pólin; 'to the City'), the appellation Greek speakers used since the 11th century to colloquially refer to the city.[10][/b]
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[b]Over 13.4 million foreign visitors came to Istanbul in 2018, eight years after it was named a European Capital of Culture, making it the world's eighth most visited city.[14] The historic centre of Istanbul is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the city hosts the headquarters of numerous Turkish companies, accounting for more than thirty percent of the country's economy.[15][16] [/b]
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[b]Toponymy
Column of Constantine[17]
The first known name of the city is Byzantium (Greek: Byzántion), the name given to it at its foundation by Megarian colonists around 657 BCE.[10][18] Megarian colonists claimed a direct line back to the founders of the city, Byzas, the son of the god Poseidon and the nymph Ceroëssa.[18] Modern excavations have raised the possibility that the name Byzantium might reflect the sites of native Thracian settlements that preceded the fully-fledged town.[19] Constantinople comes from the Latin name Constantinus, after Constantine the Great, the Roman emperor who refounded the city in 324 CE.[18] Constantinople remained the most common name for the city in the West until the 1930s, when Turkish authorities began to press for the use of "Istanbul" in foreign languages. ?os?an??n?ye (Ottoman Turkish: ?????????) and ?stanbul were the names used alternatively by the Ottomans during their rule.[20][/b]
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[b]The name ?stanbul (Turkish pronunciation: [is?tanbu?] colloquial Turkish pronunciation: [?s?tambu?]) is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase "??? ??? ?????" (pronounced Greek pronunciation: [is tim ?bolin]), which means "to the city"[21] and is how Constantinople was referred to by the local Greeks. This reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was also reflected by its nickname Der Saadet meaning the 'Gate to Prosperity' in Ottoman Turkish.[22] An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first and third syllables dropped.[18] Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, such as Evliya Çelebi, describe it as the common Turkish name of the time; between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use. The first use of the word Islambol (Ottoman Turkish: ????????) on coinage was in 1730 during the reign of Sultan Mahmud I.[23] In modern Turkish, the name is written as ?stanbul, with a dotted ?, as the Turkish alphabet distinguishes between a dotted and dotless I. In English the stress is on the first or last syllable, but in Turkish it is on the second syllable (-tan-).[24] A person from the city is an ?stanbullu (plural: ?stanbullular); Istanbulite is used in English.[25] [/b]
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[b]History
This large keystone might have belonged to a triumphal arch at the Forum of Constantine (present-day Çemberlita?).[17]
Main article: History of Istanbul
See also: Timeline of Istanbul history
Historical affiliations
Byzantium 667 BC–510 BC
undefined Persian Empire 512 BC–478 BC
Byzantium (Under Athens) 478 BC–404 BC
Byzantium 404 BC–196 CE
Roman Empire 196–395 (Capital between 330–395)
Byzantine Empire 395–1204
Latin Empire 1204–1261
Byzantine Empire 1261–1453
Ottoman Empire 1453–1918
Occupation of Istanbul 1918–1923
Turkish National Movement 1923
Turkey 1923–Present
Neolithic artifacts, uncovered by archeologists at the beginning of the 21st century, indicate that Istanbul's historic peninsula was settled as far back as the 6th millennium BCE.[26] That early settlement, important in the spread of the Neolithic Revolution from the Near East to Europe, lasted for almost a millennium before being inundated by rising water levels.[27][26][28][29] The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE,[30] On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE. Modern authors have linked it to the Thracian toponym Lygos,[31] mentioned by Pliny the Elder as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium.[32][/b]
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[b]The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE,[10][33][d] when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosporus. The settlers built an acropolis adjacent to the Golden Horn on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city's economy.[39] The city experienced a brief period of Persian rule at the turn of the 5th century BCE, but the Greeks recaptured it during the Greco-Persian Wars.[40] Byzantium then continued as part of the Athenian League and its successor, the Second Athenian League, before gaining independence in 355 BCE.[41] Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the Roman Empire in 73 CE.[42] Byzantium's decision to side with the Roman usurper Pescennius Niger against Emperor Septimius Severus cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195 CE, two years of siege had left the city devastated.[43] Five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity.[44] [/b]
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[b]Rise and fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire
Originally built by Constantine the Great in the 4th century and later rebuilt by Justinian the Great after the Nika riots in 532, the Hagia Irene is an Eastern Orthodox Church located in the outer courtyard of Topkap? Palace in Istanbul. It is one of the few Byzantine era churches that were never converted into mosques; during the Ottoman period it served as Topkap?'s principal armoury.
Originally a church, later a mosque, the 6th-century Hagia Sophia (532–537) by Byzantine emperor Justinian the Great was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until the completion of the Seville Cathedral (1507) in Spain.[/b]
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[b]Constantine the Great effectively became the emperor of the whole of the Roman Empire in September 324.[45] Two months later, he laid out the plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. As the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named Nova Roma; most called it Constantinople, a name that persisted into the 20th century.[46] On 11 May 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the capital of the Roman Empire, which was later permanently divided between the two sons of Theodosius I upon his death on 17 January 395, when the city became the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.[47][/b]
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[b]The establishment of Constantinople was one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity.[47][48] Numerous churches were built across the city, including Hagia Sophia which was built during the reign of Justinian the Great and remained the world's largest cathedral for a thousand years.[49] Constantine also undertook a major renovation and expansion of the Hippodrome of Constantinople; accommodating tens of thousands of spectators, the hippodrome became central to civic life and, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the center of episodes of unrest, including the Nika riots.[50][51] Constantinople's location also ensured its existence would stand the test of time; for many centuries, its walls and seafront protected Europe against invaders from the east and the advance of Islam.[48] During most of the Middle Ages, the latter part of the Byzantine era, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent and at times the largest in the world.[52][53] Constantinople is generally considered to be the center and the "cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization".[54][55]
Constantinople began to decline continuously after the end of the reign of Basil II in 1025. The Fourth Crusade was diverted from its purpose in 1204, and the city was sacked and pillaged by the crusaders.[56] They established the Latin Empire in place of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire.[57] Hagia Sophia was converted to a Catholic church in 1204. The Byzantine Empire was restored, albeit weakened, in 1261.[58] Constantinople's churches, defenses, and basic services were in disrepair,[59] and its population had dwindled to a hundred thousand from half a million during the 8th century.[e] After the reconquest of 1261, however, some of the city's monuments were restored, and some, like the two Deesis mosaics in Hagia Sophia and Kariye, were created.[60]
The 6th century Basilica Cistern was built by Justinian the Great. Various economic and military policies instituted by Andronikos II, such as the reduction of military forces, weakened the empire and left it vulnerable to attack.[61] In the mid-14th-century, the Ottoman Turks began a strategy of gradually taking smaller towns and cities, cutting off Constantinople's supply routes and strangling it slowly.[62] On 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege (during which the last Roman emperor, Constantine XI, was killed), Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" captured Constantinople and declared it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. Hours later, the sultan rode to the Hagia Sophia and summoned an imam to proclaim the Islamic creed, converting the grand cathedral into an imperial mosque due to the city's refusal to surrender peacefully.[63] Mehmed declared himself as the new Kayser-i Rûm (the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of the Caesar of Rome) and the Ottoman state was reorganized into an empire.[64][65]
Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic eras
Map of Istanbul in the 16th century by the Ottoman polymath Matrakç? Nasuh
Following the conquest of Constantinople,[f] Mehmed II immediately set out to revitalize the city. Cognizant that revitalization would fail without the repopulation of the city, Mehmed II welcomed everyone–foreigners, criminals, and runaways– showing extraordinary openness and willingness to incorporate outsiders that came to define Ottoman political culture.[67] He also invited people from all over Europe to his capital, creating a cosmopolitan society that persisted through much of the Ottoman period.[68] Revitalizing Istanbul also required a massive program of restorations, of everything from roads to aqueducts.[69] Like many monarchs before and since, Mehmed II transformed Istanbul's urban landscape with wholesale redevelopment of the city center.[70] There was a huge new palace to rival, if not overshadow, the old one, a new covered market (still standing as the Grand Bazaar), porticoes, pavilions, walkways, as well as more than a dozen new mosques.[69] Mehmed II turned the ramshackle old town into something that looked like an imperial capital.[70][/b]
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[b]Social hierarchy was ignored by the rampant plague, which killed the rich and the poor alike [/b]
[*] [b]in the 16th century.[71] Money could not protect the rich from all the discomforts and harsher sides of Istanbul.[71] Although the Sultan lived at a safe remove from the masses, and the wealthy and poor tended to live side by side, for the most part Istanbul was not zoned as modern cities are.[71] Opulent houses shared the same streets and districts with tiny hovels.[71] Those rich enough to have secluded country properties had a chance of escaping the periodic epidemics of sickness that blighted Istanbul.[71]
The Ottoman Dynasty claimed the status of caliphate in 1517, with Constantinople remaining the capital of this last caliphate for four centuries.[13] Suleiman the Magnificent's reign from 1520 to 1566 was a period of especially great artistic and architectural achievement; chief architect Mimar Sinan designed several iconic buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics, stained glass, calligraphy, and miniature flourished.[72] The population of Constantinople was 570,000 by the end of the 18th century.[73][/b]
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[b]A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan Mahmud II and eventually to the Tanzimat period, which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city.[74] Bridges across the Golden Horn were constructed during this period,[75] and Constantinople was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s.[76] Modern facilities, such as a water supply network, electricity, telephones, and trams, were gradually introduced to Constantinople over the following decades, although later than to other European cities.[77] The modernization efforts were not enough to forestall the decline of the Ottoman Empire.[78]
Sultan Abdul Hamid II was deposed with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 and the Ottoman Parliament, closed since 14 February 1878, was reopened 30 years later on 23 July 1908, which marked the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era.[79] A series of wars in the early 20th century, such as the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), plagued the ailing empire's capital and resulted in the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, which brought the regime of the Three Pashas.[80][/b]
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[b]The Ottoman Empire joined World War I (1914–1918) on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. The deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915 was among the major events which marked the start of the Armenian genocide during WWI.[81] Due to Ottoman and Turkish policies of Turkification and ethnic cleansing, the city's Christian population declined from 450,000 to 240,000 between 1914 and 1927.[82] The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918 and the Allies occupied Constantinople on 13 November 1918. The Ottoman Parliament was dissolved by the Allies on 11 April 1920 and the Ottoman delegation led by Damat Ferid Pasha was forced to sign the Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920.[citation needed]
A view of Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in the late 1920s. Completed in 1892, the Ottoman Bank headquarters is seen at left. In 1995 the Istanbul Stock Exchange moved to ?stinye, while numerous Turkish banks have moved to Levent and Maslak.[83][/b]
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[b]Following the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922), the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was declared persona non grata. Leaving aboard the British warship HMS Malaya on 17 November 1922, he went into exile and died in Sanremo, Italy, on 16 May 1926. The Treaty of Lausanne was signed on 24 July 1923, and the occupation of Constantinople ended with the departure of the last forces of the Allies from the city on 4 October 1923.[84] Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by ?ükrü Naili Pasha (3rd Corps), entered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the Liberation Day of Istanbul (Turkish: ?stanbul'un Kurtulu?u) and is commemorated every year on its anniversary.[84] On 29 October 1923 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Turkish Republic, with Ankara as its capital. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became the Republic's first President.[85][86][/b]
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[b]A 1942 wealth tax assessed mainly on non-Muslims led to the transfer or liquidation of many businesses owned by religious minorities.[87] From the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.[88] The population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the metropolitan area of Istanbul.[89]
TURKIYE NATIONAL ANTHEM - ISTIKLAL MARSI
The Istiklâl Marsi (English: Independence March) is the national anthem of the Republic of Turkey, officially adopted on 12 March 1921 —two-and-a-half years before the 29 October 1923 establishment of the nation— both as a motivational musical saga for the troops fighting in the Turkish War of Independence, and as an aspirational anthem for a Republic that was yet to be established. Penned by Mehmet Âkif Ersoy, and ultimately composed by Osman Zeki Üngör, the theme is one of affection for the Turkish homeland, freedom, and faith, as well as praise for the virtues of hope, devotion, and sacrifice in the pursuit of liberty, all explored through visual, tactile, and kinesthetic imagery as these concepts relate to the flag, the human spirit, and the soil of the homeland. The original manuscript by Ersoy carries the dedication Kahraman Ordumuza – "To our Heroic Army", in reference to the people's army that ultimately won the Turkish War of Independence, with lyrics that reflect on the sacrifices of the soldiers during the war. The anthem is regularly heard during state and military events, as well as during national festivals, bayrams, sporting events, and school ceremonies. Visual depictions can also be found adorning state or public displays, such as in the form of a scroll displaying the first two quatrains of the anthem on the reverse of the Turkish 100 lira banknotes of 1983–1989
National anthem of Turkey(1923-1930)(First recording) - Istiklal Marsinin ilk Hali
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TURKIYE CELEBRATES REPUBLIC DAY OCTOBER 29 WITH THE LAUNCHING OF TOGG AND THE CENTURY OF TURKIYE EVENT. THE AIM TO BECOME A TOP 10 ECONOMY IS TO BE APPLAUDED BUT CAN TURKIYE OVERCOME EXISTING CHALLENGES? THIS WILL BE REVIEWED HEREAFTER.
Turkish 29th October Republic Day Greetings | 99th Anniversary | Recep Tayyip Erdo?an
CENTURY OF TURKIYE :
ERDOGAN UNVEILS AK PARTY’s CENTENNIAL VISION
Speaking at the The Century of Türkiye event, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan hails the country's growth brought about by his party over the past two decades.Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has vowed to make Türkiye one of the 10 greatest states in the world.
Erdogan's remarks came at the Justice and Development (AK) Party's "The Century of Türkiye" event held on Friday in the capital Ankara.
He hailed the country's growth brought about by his party over the past two decades and vowed progress in the fields of politics, economy, technology, military, and diplomacy.
"We brought Türkiye’s reputation to highest level with our foreign policy," said Erdogan, adding his party wants to make a strong start to the new century of the republic.
At the event Erdogan unveiled a series of programmes, projects, and targets ahead of the next year's presidential and general elections as the country prepares to celebrate its centennial in 2023.
"We share with all humanity the happiness that the 'Century of Türkiye' is also the name of a revolution that will bring democracy, development, peace, and prosperity to all parts of the world, starting with our country and our region," he added.
Listing the government's many achievements, Erdogan said: "We provide quality and free health care and education to our citizens, support elders who have to remain in their homes and present facilities of developed countries to our people with the understanding of social state."
In addition, Türkiye explored 540 billion cubic metres of natural gas reserves in the Black Sea, Erdogan said, adding he "will share the joy of new good news in energy with our nation soon."
READ MORE:Erdogan: AK Party started a new era in Türkiye
Türkiye's global influence
Under AK Party, the number of foreign missions increased from 163 to 255 and the country now exports UAV, armed UAV and similar products to 170 countries, Erdogan said.
"We gave our country a voice, influence on international scale," he said, adding that re-opening the Ayasofya Grand Mosque after 86 years was challenge to global tutelage.
Erdogan said the country was making efforts to ensure peace in the world by talking with conflicting parties.
"At a time when wars, conflicts, and tensions are increasing all around us, we are the only country that makes sincere efforts for peace by establishing an equal, moral, and fair relationship with all parties," he said, adding that Türkiye is getting "more and more appreciation" with its humanitarian and conscientious stance.
Türkiye has been in close contact with both Russia and Ukraine since the beginning of the conflict in February. Erdogan has repeatedly stressed his wish to bring Russian President Vladimir Putin and his Ukrainian counterpart Volodymyr Zelenskyy together at the negotiating table in Türkiye to end the conflict.
Looking ahead, Erdogan said Türkiye will kick off Canal Istanbul, the party's project to create an alternative strait for ship passages.
Ankara will also have $1 trillion of export volume and will become a leading country in metaverse and blockchain, he added.
In addition, he said his ruling AK Party will get rid of the constitution made after the 1980 coup and would propose a new one to the parliament as part of the party's new vision.
READ MORE: Türkiye's AK Party celebrates 21st founding anniversary
Anti-terror operations
Talking about Türkiye's anti-terrorism operations, Erdogan said the country "thwarted attempts to create a terror corridor along our southern border with the operations of Euphrates Shield, Olive Branch, Claw, Peace Spring, Spring Shield and Claw-Lock."
"We have ensured the voluntary return of approximately 530,000 people to the safe zones we created in Syria," Erdogan said.
More than 3.7 million Syrians currently reside in Türkiye, making it the world's top refugee-hosting country.
Türkiye had launched Operation Claw-Lock in April to target the PKK terror organisation’s hideouts in northern Iraq’s Metina, Zap, and Avasin-Basyan regions near the Turkish border.
It was preceded by Operations Claw-Tiger and Claw-Eagle launched in 2020 to root out terrorists hiding out in northern Iraq and plotting cross-border attacks in Türkiye.
AT A TIME OF HUGE GEOPOLITICAL TENSIONS WHERE IS EUROPE AND TURKIYE HEADING?
TURKIC STATES | A NEW GEOPOLITICAL BLOC?
HAS TURKIYE FINALLY LEFT THE WEST ?
ERDOGAN ESCALATES TENSIONS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN
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TO UNDERSTAND TURKIYE IS AN IMMENSE TASK AND CHALLENGE. THIS ISN'T JUST BECAUSE THERE ARE 3 ERAS OF TURKISH HISTORY ENCOMPASSING THE SELJUK, OTTOMAN AND REPUBLICAN. BUT BECAUSE THE COUNTRY WAS HISTORICALLY A CROSSROAD OF CIVILISATIONS. IT IS RIGHTLY DESCRIBED AS AN OPEN AIR MUSEUM LIKE OTHER PARTS OF THE MIDDLE EAST. BUT AS TURKIYE HAS RE-EMERGED AS A REGIONAL POWER THIS NEEDS SPECIAL ATTENTION. SO IT'S TIME TO DIVE IN.
ABOUT NATIONAL PALACES AND MUSEUMS
https://www.millisaraylar.gov.tr/en/sara...eyi-sarayi
The historic palaces, pavilions and kiosks built in Istanbul as administrative centres, as permanent or summer residences for the sultans, or as temporary residences for their guests are today open to the public as museum-palaces. Known collectively as the National Palaces, they are the first “museum-palaces” in Türkiye. These royal buildings are preserved with their original furnishings and so illustrate the culture and living style of the Ottoman period.
On 3 March 1924, four months after the proclamation of the Turkish Republic, the caliphate was abolished by Act 431 and ownership of the palaces and all other real estate belonging to the sultan, together with their furnishings, transferred to the nation under Articles 8, 9 and 10 of the same act. According to a resolution passed by the Council of Ministers on 18 January 1925, the management and preservation of Dolmabahçe Palace and Beylerbeyi Palace, to be known as the National Palaces, were entrusted to a department to be established for this purpose called the Department of National Palaces.
That same year management of the Yildiz Chalet, Aynalikavak and Küçüksu pavilions (small palaces designed for temporary residence), followed in 1930 by the Yalova Atatürk Mansions,
in 1966 by Ihlamur Pavilion and in 1981 by the Maslak Pavilions was also transferred to this department. In 1983, under Act 2919 (the Grand National Assembly General Secretariat Organisation Act), the National Palaces Department was raised in status to a directorate and
in this capacity was given management of the Atatürk Marine Mansion in Florya in 1988, the Yildiz Tile and Porcelain Factory and Hereke Carpet and Silk Fabric Weaving Factory in 1995, and Beykoz Pavilion in 1999.
In 2011 the status of the Department of National Palaces was changed to that of a deputy general secretariat under Act 6253 (the Grand National Assembly Directorate Administrative Organisation Act). Following a resolution published in Official Gazette number 30480 dated
16 July 2018, the department was attached to the Presidential Office and the Directorate of National Palaces Administration was established.
After the Apartment of the Heir Apparent was transferred to the National Palaces in 2014,
the National Palaces Museum of Painting was established here and opened to the public on
22 March 2014.
Abraham Pasa Park in Beykoz, Ankara Palas Hotel in Ankara and Yildiz Palace in Istanbul were transferred to the Directorate of National Palaces Administration in 2018, followed by Topkapi Palace on 6 September 2019.
Specialist architects and restorators have been implementing restoration programmes at the museum-palaces since 1984, to ensure that these palaces, pavilions and kiosks are passed on to future generations in their original state.
All the furnishings and fittings belonging to these buildings and the objects used by their inhabitants are important part of our cultural heritage and are inventoried as the National Palaces Collection. These items are divided into sections according to type, examined by experts and recorded using contemporary methods. Restoration and conservation works
are carried out by experienced and trained personnel at the National Palaces Restoration and Conservation Studios.
The expertly landscaped grounds, cafés and gift shops at palaces, pavilions, kiosks and factories attached to the National Palaces enhance the experience of local and foreign visitors. Researchers and experts employed by the department publish academic journals, books and catalogues, brochures and guide books for vistors; and organise exhibitions, symposiums, conferences and other cultural events relating to the history of the buildings where they are held. The National Palaces Specialist Library of books that focus mainly on art, history and architecture, provides services to researchers within and outside the department.
WORLD’S LARGEST MUSEUM TÜRKIYE
https://muze.gov.tr/hakkimizda
MUSEUM OF REPUBLIC OF ANKARA
https://muze.gov.tr/muze-detay?SectionId=CUM01&DistId=MRK
MUSEUM OF ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATIONS
https://muze.gov.tr/muze-detay?SectionId=AMM01&DistId=AMM
https://muze.gov.tr/s3/MysFileLibrary/An...54c703.pdf
THE MUSEUM OF ETHNOGRAPHY
https://muze.gov.tr/muze-detay?SectionId=AET01&DistId=MRK
https://muze.gov.tr/s3/MysFileLibrary/An...7ade3c.pdf
https://sanalmuze.gov.tr/muzeler/ISTANBU...RI_MUZESI/
TOPKAPI PALACE MUSEUM
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/topkapi
https://muze.gen.tr/c7/MysFileLibrary/SP...2589a7.pdf
http://en.istanbul.gov.tr/museums-of-ist...api-palace
https://hazine.info/topkapiarchiveandlibrary/
https://hazine.info/category/libraries-en/
http://kilyos.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/topkapi.html
https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/about-silk-roads
http://info.ottomaninscriptions.com/
WHY DID OTTOMAN SULTANS SAFEGUARD ISLAM’s HOLY RELICS IN ISTANBUL?
https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/why-di...nbul-27405
IN PICTURES: HOLY RELICS OF PROPHET MOHAMMED EXHIBITED IN TOPKAPI PALACE
https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/in-pic...lace-27424
MUSEUM OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
IN ISLAM
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/islam-bilim
https://muze.gen.tr/c7/MysFileLibrary/62...c7d003.pdf
https://www.ibtav.org/en/works/
https://www.tojqih.net/journals/tojqih/a...i04-07.pdf
http://www.fuatsezginsempozyumu.org/en/about__en/
MUSEUM OF TURKISH AND ISLAMIC ARTS
https://muze.gov.tr/muze-detay?SectionId=TIE01&DistId=TIE
https://muze.gov.tr/s3/MysFileLibrary/5a...9a015b.pdf
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/tiem
https://sanalmuze.gov.tr/muzeler/ISTANBU...RI_MUZESI/
THE HAGIA SOPHIA GRAND MOSQUE
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/ayasofya
HAGIA IRENE MUSEUM
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/ayairini
CHORA MOSQUE (Kariye Camii)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBogOAhWWQ0
https://muze.gen.tr/c7/MysFileLibrary/2e...11d73c.pdf
FETHIYE (PAMMAKARISTOS) MUSEUM
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/fethiye
ISTANBUL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUMS
https://muze.gov.tr/muze-detay?SectionId=IAR01&DistId=IAR
https://muze.gov.tr/s3/MysFileLibrary/d1...b7d9a6.pdf
GREAT PALACE MOSAICS MUSEUMS
https://muze.gov.tr/muze-detay?SectionId=MOZ01&DistId=MOZ
https://muze.gov.tr/s3/MysFileLibrary/1a...a381ce.pdf
GALATA MEVLEVI HOUSE MUSEUM
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/galatamevlevi
https://muze.gen.tr/c7/MysFileLibrary/2f...956e0e.pdf
RUMELI FORTRESS
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/rumeli
https://muze.gen.tr/c7/MysFileLibrary/10...6c745d.pdf
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/rumeli
https://www.ktb.gov.tr/EN-113757/rumeli-fortress.html
https://www.turkishmuseums.com/museum/de...eum/2077/4
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ar...3513000460
https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/rumelihisari
ISTANBUL RAHMI M.KOC MUSEUM
https://www.turkishmuseums.com/museum/de...um/12315/4
ISTANBUL HILYE I SERIF AND ROSARY MUSEUM
https://www.turkishmuseums.com/museum/de...um/12329/4
ISTANBUL II.BAYEZID TURKISH HAMAM CULTURE MUSEUM
https://www.turkishmuseums.com/museum/de...um/12325/4
ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY BEYAZIT TOWER MONUMENT MUSEUM https://www.turkishmuseums.com/museum/de...um/12323/4
ISTANBUL AIRPORT MUSEUM
https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/havaalani
ISTANBUL HARBIYE MILITARY MUSEUM
https://turkishmuseums.com/museum/detail...um/22335/4
ISTANBUL NAVAL MUSEUM
https://turkishmuseums.com/museum/detail...um/22321/4
ÇANAKKALE NAVAL MUSEUM
https://turkishmuseums.com/museum/detail...um/22316/4
ÇANAKKALE THE ANATOLIAN HAMIDIYE FORT
AND THE MUSEUM OF THE BATTLES OF GALLIPOLI (Çanakkale) History
https://turkishmuseums.com/museum/detail...ry/22310/4
ÇANAKKALE KILITBAHIR CASTLE MUSEUM
https://turkishmuseums.com/museum/detail...um/22308/4
ÇANAKKALE NAMAZGAH FORT AND MUSEUM
https://turkishmuseums.com/museum/detail...um/22311/4
ÇANAKKLE NAVAL MUSEUM
https://turkishmuseums.com/museum/detail...eum/22316/4
https://muze.gov.tr/muzeler
https://www.ktb.gov.tr
https://goturkiye.com
https://turkey-e-visa.com/consulate/saud...ul-turkey/
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